Carl von Clausewitz - On strategy in general

Chapter 1: Strategy

• strategic theory deals with planning
• a true mark of wisdom is to do just enough to accomplish an objective without trying to do more than current strength and resources allow

Chapter 2: Elements of strategy

• moral elements = everything that is created by intellectual and psychological qualities and influences
• physical elements = the size of the armed forces, their composition, armament and so forth
• mathematical elements = the angle of lines of operation, the convergent and divergent movements wherever geometry enters into their calculation
• geographical elements = the influence of terrain, such as commanding positions, mountains, rivers, woods, and roads
• statistical elements = support and maintenance.

Chapter 3: Moral factors

• moral factors are inseparable from war
• wisdom is cultivated not so much by critical studies, but by insight and flashes of intuition

Chapter 4: The principal moral elements

• they are: the skill of the commander, the experience and courage of the troops, and their patriotic spirit

Chapter 5: Military virtues of the army

• military virtues are different than simple bravery
• military virtues are found only in regular armies
• military spirit is a critical element of war, and it is built by victorious wars and frequent exertions of the army to the utmost limits of its strength
• don't confuse the real spirit of an army with its mood

Chapter 11: Concentration of forces in space

• being strong and keeping one's forces concentrated are the decisive factors in strategy
• concentration of force is the norm, and every separation and split is an exception that has to be justified

Chapter 13: The strategic reserve

• the 2 purposes of a reserve are to prolong and renew the action and to counter unforeseen threats

Chapter 14: Economy of force

• always ensure that all forces are involved, that no part of the whole force is idle
• wasting forces is worse than using them improperly
• completely inactive troops are neutralized, while even the smallest action can detract from the enemy's strength and focus

Chapter 16: The suspension of action in war

• both sides can't take same actions simultaneously. If one advances, the other is waiting
• politically, only one can be the aggressor: there can be no war if both parties seek to defend themselves.
• violent clashes are interrupted by periods of observation, during which both sides are on the defensive

Source(s):

On War

Carl von Clausewitz - On the theory of war

This post continues with a summary of the second book in Clausewitz's treatise, that deals with the theory of war:

Chapter 1: Classifications of the art of war

• the art of war is the art of using the given means in combat
• the distinction between tactics (the use of armed forces in the engagement) and strategy (the use of engagements for the object of the war)
• classification between combat activities (marches, camps and billets) and maintenance activities (supply, medical services and maintenance of arms and equipment)
• war activities classified in preparations for war and the actual war

Chapter 2: On the theory of war

• the use of intellect in warfare
• the need to create a system of theoretical principles for the conduct of war
• the role of theory is to guide someone who wants to learn about war, not to formulate the actions on the battlefield
• theory studies the nature of ends (victory) and means (the fighting forces)

Chapter 3: Art of war or science of war

• war is neither an art nor a science, but a clash of interests in the humans' social existence

Chapter 4: Method and routine

• a method or ‘mode of procedure’, is a constantly recurring procedure that has been selected from several possibilities.
• routines represent a general way of executing tasks as they arise based on average probability.
• constant practice leads to brisk, precise, and reliable leadership
• routine is better suited for tactics than for strategy
• a certain amount of subjectivity that reflects the personality of the commander exists in his actions. That style may not suit those who copy it

Chapter 5: Critical analysis

• critical analysis = the application of theoretical truths to actual events
• 3 steps in critical approach: 1) the discovery and interpretation of equivocal facts (historical research); 2) tracing effects back to their causes (critical analysis proper); 3) investigating and evaluating the means employed (criticism)
• A critical inquiry––the examination of the means––poses the question as to what are the peculiar effects of the means employed, and whether these effects conform to the intention with which they were used.
• a critic should analyze the reasons why an exception occurred

Chapter 6: On historical examples

• historical examples provide the best proof in empirical sciences. They can be used as an explanation of an idea to show the application of an idea, to prove the possibility of a phenomenon or effect, or to deduce a doctrine

Source(s):

On War

Carl von Clausewitz - On the nature of war

Prussia has produced notable personalities that influenced history, such as chancellor Bismarck and general Clausewitz. This is the first post in a series that focuses on Carl von Clausewitz's military theory treatise, On War. Here I summarize the contents of the first book, that discusses the nature of war.

Chapter 1: What is war?

• the definition of war
• acknowledges the need for the maximum use of force
• it is through their interaction that warring sides push each other to extremes
• the aim is to overcome or disarm the enemy (making him defenseless)
• was is not an isolated act and it doesn't consist of a single decisive blow
• the result of war is not final
• the similarity between war and a gamble
• war as a means of reaching a political goal

Chapter 2: Purpose and means in war

• the 3 objectives that must be considered: the armed forces, the country, and the enemy's will
• war doesn't involve the notion that the 2 states have relatively equal strength
• methods to increase the cost of the war for the enemy
• combat is the only means of war

Chapter 3: On military genius

• military genius consists of a combination of elements that influence military performance
• war being the realm of chance
• the importance of the intellect in war
• the role of the commander
• temperament and feelings's influence in war
• relationship between warfare and terrain

Chapter 4: On danger in war

• the effect that immediate danger has on the mind of a soldier

Chapter 5: On physical effort in war

• physical effort can't be measured
• hardships are no excuse for a defeat, bu they boost the value of a victory

Chapter 6: Intelligence in war

• the unreliable character of information in war
• most intelligence is false, and reports of bad news multiply easily

Chapter 7: Friction in war

• even the simplest thing is difficult in war
• how performance in war is lowered by many factors 
• habit and experience are essential for sound decision-making

Chapter 8: Concluding observations on Book One

• danger, physical exertion, intelligence, and friction are the elements that impede activity in war. They can be countered by combat experience

Source(s):
On War

Book recommendation - Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity

This book presents the evolution of warfare methods in Greece and Rome. It depicts battles, campaigns and military practices in detail, while also bringing up interesting topics, such as how the emulation of the glorious past influenced the behavior of troops and leaders in both the Greek and Roman civilizations. I summarized the chapters below:

Chapter 1: Fighting in the Iliad

• Homer's epic poem depicts fights between heroes as one-on-one duels
• competition in excellence between the combatants
• slaying a strong opponent brings more glory to the victor
• the Iliad set the foundation for the spirit of competition among the Greeks

Chapter 2: The Last Hoplite - The Origins of the Phalanx

• the story of the 300 vs. 300 battle between Spartans and Argives, at the end of which Othryades, a lone Spartan survivor, remained standing in his place among the hoplite ranks
• emergence of phalanx combat
• cavalry and archer corps gradually give way to the heavy-armored infantry suited to disciplined fighting in a formation
• holding one's place in the ranks is the supreme display of courage in phalanx combat and a way to compete between each other

Chapter 3: Two Stubborn Spartans in the Persian War - City and Discipline in the Phalanx

• the hoplites' acts of courage or cowardice reflect on the reputation of their cities
• Spartans marched and fought in a calm and disciplined way, without being driven by anger or passion
• Spartan obedience to the laws and commanders was a competition of excellence

Chapter 4: The Guile of Delium - Generals and Tactics in the Phalanx

• focus on the first part of the  Peloponnesian war
• in the battle between Athenians and Boeotians, the Thebans used an unprecedented tactic of a 25 deep phalanx. The Athenians were routed, but Socrates rallied them and led them to safety
• normal conventions of warfare are discarded in favor of more cunning methods with a better chance for victory
• examples of Spartan tricks and deception in battle
• the kings and commanders also fought in the phalanx, being part of the hoplite competition of valor
• cunning on the general's part interfered with the hoplite code of bravery that was implied by standing one's ground in battle
• competition between leaders manifested in skills such as troop deployment, persuasion and stratagems

Chapter 5: The Arts of War in the Early Fourth Century BC - Peltasts, Cavalry, and Training

• focus on the last part of the  Peloponnesian war
• changes in warfare are introduced. Sparta reestablishes troops of archers and cavalry
• emergence of light troops and mercenaries
• in the battle of Lechaeum, the Athenian peltasts inflicted heavy damage on the Spartan hoplites, who were unaccustomed to opponents who used hit-and-run tactics
• description of cavalry tactics, formations, and drills
• instilling discipline to unruly troops by making drills a competition, sometimes with an audience
• competition between cities by the way of hoplite fighting gradually gives way to individual competition between soldiers in their area of expertise
• the military maneuvers that led to Sparta's defeat by Thebes at Leuctra 
• description of the Theban Sacred Band made up of 300 male lovers

Chapter 6: Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus - Homer and Macedonian Warfare

• Alexander's campaigns and tactics 
• Alexander's fixation with Achylles and the competition with his achievements
• story of how Alexander fought in one of his battles wearing an ancient armor that was thought to have been used in the battle of Troy
• description of how Alexander's army was organized
• the practice of ranking and rewarding merit, in order from the first to the eight, and punishment that implied losing one's position in the army and of the status that came with it

Chapter 7: Hellenistic Warfare (323-31 BC) - Competition, Combat and Innovation

• covers the battles over Alexander's empire
• emergence of various military disciplines in which games and contests were held, such as the games of Samos
• the loose discipline of the Hellenistic troops was compensated by their competition in obedience to commands and precision of execution
• the competition in stratagems and army deployment between generals Antigonus and Eumenes
• the importance of training for armies likened to that for professional athletes

Chapter 8: Early Roman Warfare - Single Combat and the Legion of Maniples

• tales of single combat duels between Romans and their foes
• spoils taken from winning duels granted special honors for a Roman warrior
• the organization of a legion of maniples and its combat methods
• the Romans' conception of their past
• 2 dominant aspects of Roman warfare: virtus and disciplina

Chapter 9: The Wrath of Pydna - Command, Discipline and Courage in the Roman Republic

• focus on the war between Rome and Macedonia
• the connection between war and public opinion in Roman society
• the Romans' aggressive behavior in war and disdain for caution
• the superiority of the Macedonian phalanx against the Romans until the defeat at Pydna
• conflict between the notion of virtus and the need for tactics in warfare

Chapter 10: Caesar's Centurions and the Legion of Cohorts - Military Culture and Greek Influence in the Late Republic

• describes Caesar's campaigns
• the aggressive bravery and high casualty rate of Roman centurions
• the organization of a legion and the cohorts' versatility

Chapter 11: Scenes from the Jewish War, AD 67-70: Fighting, Working and Training in the Roman Imperial Army

• chronicles the Jewish War
• increasingly important role of auxiliaries, supported by the scenes on Trajan's Column
• competition in disciplina for the legions and in virtus for the auxiliaries

Chapter 12: Shield Wall and Mask - The Military Past in the Roman Empire

• Roman combat style switching to the shield wall
• testudo - the tortoise formation
• masks that signified the excellence in horsemanship of the wearer, and the influence of the Greek history and mythology
• tendency to revive Greek traditions of fighting

Chapter 13: Julian in Persia, AD 363 - Triumph of the Ghosts

• description of emperor Julian's campaign in Persia
• Julian's emulation of the past in warfare
• the battle of Adrianople

I found this book an excellent read about the methods and transitions of warfare from the heroic times of the Iliad, through to Alexander the Great's conquests, and Rome's evolution from republic to empire. It also includes quotes and interesting, less known facts (or they were for me). Did you know that Alexander carried the Iliad with him on campaign to have a constant source of motivation and inspiration? Or how the last surviving Spartan hoplite of a 300 vs. 300 battle between Spartans and Argives claimed the right to victory, even though from the Argives there remained 2 survivors? I really enjoyed this book and all the information that it provided, in an easily readable way, and I highly recommend it for others who are interested in the subject.

Check it out here: